BRIEF NOTES ON APPROACHES ELT.

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BRIEF NOTES ON APPROACHES ELT.

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Ø M.A (English)   :  SEM -3

Ø Paper – 12   : ELT-1

Ø Submitted to:  Smt.S.B.Gardi, Department of English,                                                                                               MK Bhavnagar University.

Ø Words count: -

#INTRODUCTION:

Today, English is the world’s most widely studied foreign language. Five hundred years ago, Latin was the most dominant language to be studied because it was the language of business, commerce, and education in the western world. In the sixteenth century, however, the French, Italian and English gain in importance because of political change in Europe and Latin gradually became displaced as a language of spoken and written communication

In the eighteenth century, when modern languages began to enter in the curriculum of the European countries, these languages were taught by the same methods as the Latin language was taught. Grammatical rules were memorized. Written practices were done. The passages were translated from the second language to the first language and vice versa (ibid).

By the nineteenth century, this method was considered as a standard method of teaching language. The textbooks were divided into chapters. Each chapter contained a certain grammatical rule and rule was practices with many written exercises.

#VARIOUS APPROACHES:

#Structural Approach:

The Structural Approach is based on the assumption that language can best be learned through a scientific selection and grading of structures or patterns of sentences and vocabulary. The stress is on the learning of essential structures of English.

In the words of Menon and Patel: "The Structural Approach is based on the belief that in the learning of a foreign language, mastery of structures is more important than the acquisition of vocabulary." This approach employs techniques of the Direct Method of teaching but the use of translation is not wholly discarded. Teaching is done in situations. Speech is mainly stressed but reading and writing are not neglected. Structural Approach is essentially what the term implies-an approach and not a method as such. There is scope for limitless experimentation in imaginative ways of applying the Structural Approach in the classroom. Prof. C.S. Bhandari has rightly remarked: "It is not proper and correct to call the Structural Approach a method of teaching. It is not a method; it is an approach. Any method can be used with it"

The Objectives of the Structural Approach According to Menon and Patel the following are the objectives of the new Structural Approach:

1. To lay the foundation of English by establishing through drill and repetition about 275 graded structures.

2. To enable the children to attain mastery over an essential vocabulary of about 3,000 root words for active use.

3. To correlate the teaching of grammar and composition with the reading lessons.

4. To teach the four fundamental skills, namely, understanding, speaking, reading and writing in the order named.

5. To lay proper emphasis on the aural-oral approach, active methods and the condemnation of formal grammar for its own sake.

Principles of the structural approach

=The principles of the Structural Approach may be as under:

1. Forming language habits.

The Structural Approach gives due importance to the forming of language habits. The learners should acquire the habit of arranging words in English standard sentence patterns through language drills.

2. Importance of speech.

The Structural Approach regards speech as more important than reading and writing. Speech is the necessary means of fixing firmly all groundwork.

3. Importance of pupil's activity.

The Structural Approach puts more emphasis on pupil's activity than on the teacher's. The child is the learner, so he must be actively involved in the teaching-learning process. From the above three principles, we observe that speech and oral work are the core of the structural way. The pupil himself assumes prominence in every activity connected in the new way of teaching and learning the language. Oral work, in fact, is the sheet anchor of the approach. The whole approach is based on the principle "that language is learned through use, and that the use of it is almost always accompanied by an activity of some kind. Pleasurable activity is the secret of success in language assimilation."

# Oral Approach/ Situational Language Teaching:

The oral approach is a method in which children to use whatever hearing they get from their surroundings. They also take help from the context to understand and use language. The target is to develop the skills in the individual so that he can communicate and function independently. This approach helps in the development of reading and writing skills (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).

The oral approach was developed from the 1930s to the 1960s by British applied linguistics such as Harold Palmer and A.S. Hornsby. The main difference between oral approach and the direct method was that the methods, which were developed under this approach, had theoretical principles about the selection, grading, and presentation of the content and material. This sequencing of the content would lead to better learning with a good knowledge of vocabulary and grammatical patterns. In this approach all, the points of language were to be presented in “situations” which led to the second name of the approach i.e. situational language teaching. Although, the teachers are not aware of this approach today but, it had a long-lasting impact on language learning. However, its focus on oral practice, grammar, and sentence patterns are still supported by the teachers.

#Natural Approach:

In 1977, Tracey Terrell proposed the natural approach to language teaching. This approach was influenced by Stephen Krashen’s theory of language acquisition. The natural approach focuses on communication as the major function of language. In this approach, language is considered as the vehicle or means of conveying a message and information. The natural approach was actually based on the observation and understanding of the acquisition of the first and the second language in informal settings (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).

# Communicative approach:

Communicative language teaching (CLT), or the communicative approach, is an approach to language teaching that emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of the study.

Language learners in environments utilizing CLT techniques, learn and practice the target language through the interaction with one another and the instructor, the study of "authentic texts" (those written in the target language for purposes other than language learning), and through the use of the language both in class and outside of class.

Learners converse about personal experiences with partners, and instructors teach topics outside of the realm of traditional grammar, in order to promote language skills in all types of situations. This method also claims to encourage learners to incorporate their personal experiences into their language-learning environment, and to focus on the learning experience in addition to the learning of the target language.

According to CLT, the goal of language education is the ability to communicate in the target language. This is in contrast to previous views in which grammatical competence was commonly given top priority.CLT also focuses on the teacher being a facilitator, rather than an instructor. Furthermore, the approach is a non-methodical system that does not use a textbook series to teach English but rather works on developing sound oral/verbal skills prior to reading and writing.

#REFRENCES:

§  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicative_language_teaching

§  https://www.ukessays.com/essays/english-language/methods-and-approaches-of-english-language-teaching-english-language-essay.php

§  http://www.preservearticles.com/2012010920309/essay-on-the-structural-approach-of-teaching-english.html

KEY TERMS OF POSTCOLONIALISM.

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KEY TERMS OF POSTCOLONIALISM.

Ø Prepared by: KAVITABA P. GOHIL

Ø Roll No: 19

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Ø M.A (English): SEM -3

Ø Paper – 11: THE POSTCOLONIAL LITERATURE

Ø Submitted to: Smt .S. B Gardi, Department of English,                                                                                               MK Bhavnagar University.

Ø Words count: -

#INTRODUCTION:

The field Postcolonial studies gas been gaining romance since the 1970s. The growing currency within the academy of the term “Postcolonial” was consulted by the appearance in 1989 of the empire writer back. Theory and practice in the postcolonial literature by Bill Ashcroft, Gareth Griffiths, and Holon Stiffen. The debate surrounding the status of settler countries as Postcolonial suggests that issues in Postcolonial studies often transcend the boundaries of strict definition, the formation of the colony through the various mechanism of control and the various stages in the development of scholars in the field.

#SELECTED KEY TERMS:

#ABROGATION:

Abrogation refers to the rejection by post-colonial writers of a normative concept of ‘correct’ or ‘standard’ English used by certain ABROGATION classes or groups, and of the corresponding concepts of inferior ‘dialects’ or ‘marginal variants’. The concept is usually employed in conjunction with the term appropriation, which describes the processes of English adaptation itself, and is an important component of the post-colonial assumption that all language use is a ‘variant’ of one kind or another (and is in that sense ‘marginal’ to some illusory standard). Thus abrogation is an important political stance, whether articulated or not and even whether conscious or not, from which the actual appropriation of language can take place.

In arguing for the parity of all forms of English, abrogation offers a counter to the theory that use of the colonialist’s language inescapably imprisons the colonized within the colonizer’s conceptual paradigms – the view that ‘you can’t dismantle the master’s house with the master ‘stools’. Abrogation implies rather that the master’s house is always adaptable and that the same tools offer a means of conceptual transformation and liberation. Although abrogation has been used to describe the rejection of a standard language in the writing of post-colonial literature, it can, like appropriation be used to describe a great range of cultural and political activities – film, theatre, the writing of history, political organization, modes of thought and argument. Individuals who are involved in these things may abrogate any centralizing notion of the ‘correct’, or standard, the way of doing things and re-define the practice in a different setting.

#ANTI COLONIALISM:

 The political struggle of colonized peoples against the specific ideology and practice of colonialism Anti-signifies the point at which the various forms of opposition become articulated as a resistance to the operations of colonialism in political, economic and cultural institutions. It emphasizes the need to reject colonial power and restore local control.  Paradoxically, anti-colonialist movements often expressed themselves in the appropriation and subversion of forms borrowed from the institutions of the colonizer and turned back on them.

 Thus the struggle was often articulated in terms of a discourse of anti-colonial ‘nationalism’ in which the form of the modern European nation-state was taken over and employed as a sign of resistance Anti-colonialism has taken many forms in different colonial situations; it is sometimes associated with an ideology of racial liberation, as in the case of nineteenth-century West African nationalists such as Edward Wilmot. In the second half of the twentieth century, anti-colonialism was often articulated in terms of a radical, Marxist discourse of liberation, and in constructions that sought to reconcile the internationalist and anti-elitist demands of Marxism with the nationalist sentiments of the period, in the work and theory of early national liberationist thinkers.

 Anti colonialism the movement that oppose colonialism. Anti colonial struggle the opinion war through film more lasted from 1839 to 1842 it begin because the British kept trafficking opium through India into the China. China in British were doing this because they really wanted to trade Chinese birth cake new opium was only product that China could not produce for itself,  so the British wanted to trade with China. China  site no we already have everything we need and then the British said oh wait but we have got this opinion in China said we don't really want either but the British food traffic it through India and then into China and threaded there even through .

# Commonwealth literature:

Commonwealth literature does not exist by Salman Rushdie but he is one of the key representatives of contemporary commonwealth literature. As an Indian-British novelist, he is world famous for his novel Midnight’s Children (1981) which won the booker prize. Most of his books are set in India and have a particular emphasis on history.

 What is commonwealth? The original phrase “the commonwealth” or “the common weal” comes from the old meaning of “wealth” which is “well-being”. The term literary, mean “common well-being”. Commonwealth means British nation and political community founder for the common good. It deals with public welfare. Commonwealth literature was generally used to refer to the literatures of colonies, former colonies and dependencies of Britain excluding the literature of England, commonly it shows the nationality. Therefore, after all we can say that commonwealth literature means master slave relationship. It means inferior nations are in under the powerful nation.

# POST-COLONIALISM:

 Broadly a study of the effects of colonialism; on cultures and societies. It is concerned with both how European nations conquered, and controlled "Third World" cultures and how these groups have since responded to and resisted those encroachments. Post-colonialism, as both a body of theory and a study of political and cultural change, has gone and continues to go through three broad stages:

‘An initial awareness of the social, psychological, and cultural inferiority enforced by being in a colonized state the struggle for ethnic, cultural, and political autonomy a growing awareness of cultural overlap and hybridity.’

 Postcolonial literature is the writings produced by members of the indigenous cultures or by settlers (and their descendents) who have ties to both the invading culture and the oppressed one. (Agreement about the inclusion of the latter is not universal.) In English-speaking nations, the term usually refers to the literature of former colonies of the British Empire.

 Postcolonial literary criticism refers to the analysis that looks to uncover the colonialist or ant colonialist ideologies in the text. It means Post colonialism is the study of a culture after the physical and/or political withdrawal of an oppressive power.

#Hybridity:

However, Young himself offers a number of objections to the indiscriminate use of the term. He notes how influential the term ‘hybridity’ was in imperial and colonial discourse in negative accounts of the union of disparate races – accounts that implied that unless actively and persistently cultivated, such hybrids would inevitably revert to their ‘primitive’ stock. Hybridity thus became, particularly at the turn of the century, part of a colonialist discourse of racism. Young draws our attention to the dangers of employing a term so rooted in a previous set of racist assumptions, but he also notes that there is a difference between unconscious processes of hybrid mixture, or creolization, and a conscious and politically motivated concern with the deliberate disruption of homogeneity. He notes that for Bakhtin, for example, hybridity is politicized, made contestatory, so that it embraces the subversion and challenge of division and separation. Bakhtin’s hybridity ‘sets different points of view against each other in a conflictual structure, which retains “a certain elemental, organic energy and open-endedness”. It is this potential of hybridity to reverse ‘the structures of domination in the colonial situation’, which Young recognizes, and that Bhabha articulates. ‘Bakhtin’s intentional hybrid has been transformed by Bhabha into an active moment of challenge and resistance against a dominant colonial power . . . depriving the imposed imperialist culture, not only of the authority that it has for so long imposed politically, often through violence, but even of its own claims to authenticity’. Young does, however, warn of the unconscious process of repetition involved in the contemporary use of the term. According to him, when talking about hybridity, contemporary cultural discourse cannot escape the connection with the racial categories of the past in which hybridity had such a clear racial meaning. Therefore ‘deconstructing such essentialist notions of race today we may rather be repeating the past than distancing ourselves from it, or providing a critique of it.

This is a subtle and persuasive objection to the concept. However, more positively, Young also notes that the term indicates a broader insistence in many twentieth-century disciplines, from physics to genetics, upon ‘a double logic, which goes against the convention of rational either/or choices, but which is repeated in HYBRIDITY 110 science in the split between the incompatible coexisting logics of classical and quantum physics’. In this sense, as in much else in the structuralist and poststructuralist legacy, the concept of hybridity emphasizes a typically twentieth-century concern with relations within a field rather than with an analysis of discrete objects, seeing meaning as the produce of such relations rather than as intrinsic to specific events or objects.

Whilst assertions of national culture and of pre-colonial traditions have played an important role in creating anti-colonial discourse and in arguing for an active decolonizing project, theories of the hybrid nature of post-colonial culture assert a different model for resistance, locating this in the subversive counter-discursive practices implicit in the colonial ambivalence itself and so undermining the very basis on which imperialist and colonialist discourse raises its claims of superiority.

Hybridity/syncretism is the quality of cultures that have characteristics of both the colonizers and the colonized. Marked by conflicts and tensions, they are continually changing and evolving.

#REFRENCES:

ü  http://jasaninidhi2014-16.blogspot.com/2015/10/key-terms-of-postcolonial-studys.html

ü  http://kavitamehta16.blogspot.com/2017/10/paper-no-11-postcolonial-literature.html

ü  http://staff.uny.ac.id/sites/default/files/pendidikan/else-liliani-ssmhum/postcolonialstudiesthekeyconceptsroutledgekeyguides.pdf

ü  https://quizlet.com/59835119/key-terms-in-post-colonial-theory-flash-cards/       

Poems of Robert frost: Characteristics & Themes.

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Poems of Robert Frost: Characteristics & Themes.

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Ø M.A (English)   :  SEM -3

Ø Paper – 10      : THE AMERICAN LITERATURE

Ø Submitted to   :  Smt .S. B Gardi, Department of English,                                                                                               MK Bhavnagar University.

Ø Words count: -

#ROBERT FROST:

Robert Frost was born in San Francisco, but his family moved to Lawrence, Massachusetts, in 1884 following his father’s death. The move was actually a return, for Frost’s ancestors were originally New Englanders, and Frost became famous for his poetry’s engagement with New England locales, identities, and themes. Frost graduated from Lawrence High School, in 1892, as class poet, and two years later, the New York Independent accepted his poem entitled “My Butterfly,” launching his status as a professional poet with a check for $15.00. Frost's first book was published around the age of 40, but he would go on to win a record four Pulitzer Prizes and become the most famous poet of his time, before his death at the age of 88.

Such symbolic import of mundane facts informs many of Frost’s poems, and in “Education by Poetry”, he explained: “Poetry begins in trivial metaphors, pretty metaphors, ‘grace’ metaphors, and goes on to the most profound thinking that we have. Poetry provides the one permissible way of saying one thing and meaning another. ... Unless you are at home in the metaphor, unless you have had your proper poetical education in the metaphor, you are not safe anywhere.”

# Characteristics & Themes.

Frost’s poems deal with man in relation with the universe. Man’s environment as seen by frost is quite indifferent to man, neither hostile nor benevolent. Man is alone and frail as compared to the vastness of the universe. Such a view of “man on earth confronting the total universe” is inevitably linked with certain themes in Frost's poetry.

One of the most striking themes in Frost’s poetry is man’s isolation from his universe or alienation from his environment. Frost writes in “Desert Places”, “The loneliness includes me unawares”. Man is essentially alone, as is borne out in Frost's poetry. Frost is not so much concerned with depicting the cultural ethos of New England people as with presenting them “caught up in a struggle with the elementary problem of existence”. The New England of Frost reflects his consciousness of “an agrarian society isolated within an urbanized world”. Man is alone in the countryside or in the city in “Acquainted with the Night”.

“I have stood still and stopped the sound of feet

When far away from an interrupted cry

But not to call me back or say good-bye;”

In “Home Burial”, the woman suffers from a terrible sense of self-alienation, as well as alienation from her surroundings. In addition, more than the physical loneliness, man suffers from the loneliness within.

“I have it in me so much nearer home

To scare me with my own desert places”

# HUMAN LIMITATION

Practically all of Frost’s poems depict the theme of human limitation. The universe seems chaotic and horrific because man’s limited faculties cannot comprehend its meaning. Walls, physical and real, mental and invisible, separate man from Nature. “Neither Out Far Nor In Deep” shows man’s limitation concerning the mysterious universe. “Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening,” conveys the sense of an impenetrable and indefinite universe. Frost’s human beings are aware of the gap between the ideal and the actual. The apple-picker had set out on his work with great hopes but faces disillusionment.

“For I have too much

Of apple-picking: I am overtired

Of the great harvest I myself desired.”

#THEME OF EXTINCTION

The theme of extinction or death also runs through the major themes of Frost. In many, a poem he writes of “sleep” which is associated with death. “Fire and Ice” is a noteworthy poem on destruction by an excess of desire or hatred. “Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening”, “After Apple Picking”, “An Old Man’s Winter Night”, all these poems have a reference to death. “Directive” is a poem in which three of Frost’s most obsessive themes isolation, extinction and the final limitations of man are blended. Each life is shown to be pathetic because it wears away into death. The poem dismays but it also consoles.

This theme is closely related to the theme of communication. The majority of the characters in Frost's poems are isolated in one way or another. Even the characters that show no sign of depression or loneliness, such as the narrators in "The Sound of Trees" or "Fire and Ice," are still presented as detached from the rest of society, isolated because of their unique perspective. In some cases, the isolation is a far more destructive force. For example, in "The Lockless Door," the narrator has remained in a "cage" of isolation for so many years that he is too terrified to answer the door when he hears a knock. This heightened isolation keeps the character from fulfilling his potential as an individual and ultimately makes him a prisoner of his own making. Yet, as Frost suggests, this isolation can be avoided by interactions with other members of society; if the character in "The Lockless Door" could have brought himself to open the door and face an invasion of his isolation, he could have achieved a greater level of personal happiness.

# Communication

Communication or the lack thereof, appears, as a significant theme is several of Frost's poems, as Frost presents it as the only possible escape from isolation and despair. Unfortunately, Frost also makes it clear that communication is extremely difficult to achieve. For example, in "Home Burial," Frost describes two terrible events: the death of a child and the destruction of a marriage. The death of the child is tragic, but the inability of the husband and wife to communicate with each other and express their grief about the loss is what ultimately destroys the marriage. Frost highlights this inability to communicate by writing the poem in free verse dialogue; each character speaks clearly to the reader, but neither is able to understand the other. Frost explores a similar theme in "Acquainted with the Night," in which the narrator is unable to pull himself out of his depression because he cannot bring himself even to make eye contact with those around him. In each of these cases, the reader is left with the knowledge that communication could have saved the characters from their isolation. Yet, because of an unwillingness to take the steps necessary to create a relationship with another person, the characters are doomed.

#NATURE:

Nature figures prominently in Frost’s poetry and his poems usually include a moment of interaction or encounter between a human Speaker and a natural subject or phenomenon. These encounters culminate in profound realizations or revelations, which have significant consequences for the speakers. Actively engaging with nature—whether through manual labor or exploration—has a variety of results, including self-knowledge, deeper understanding of the human condition, and increased insight into the metaphysical world. Frost’s earlier work focuses on the act of discovery and demonstrates how being engaged with nature leads to growth and knowledge. For instance, a day of harvesting fruit leads to a new understanding of life’s final sleep, or death, in “After Apple-Picking” (1915). Mid-career, however, Frost used encounters in nature to comment on the human condition. In his later works, experiencing nature provided access to the universal, the supernatural, and the divine, even as the poems themselves became increasingly focused on aging and mortality.

Throughout Frost’s work, speakers learn about themselves by exploring nature, but nature always stays indifferent to the human world. In other words, people learn from nature because nature allows people to gain knowledge about them and because nature requires people to reach for new insights, but nature itself does not provide answers. Frost believed in the capacity of humans to achieve feats of understanding in natural settings, but he also believed that nature was unconcerned with either human achievement or human misery. Indeed, in Frost’s work, nature could be both generous and malicious. The speaker of “Design” (1936), for example, wonders about the “design of darkness” that has led a spider to kill a moth over the course of a night. While humans might learn about themselves through nature, nature and its ways remain mysterious.

#DAILY LIFE:

Frost is very interested in the activities of everyday life because it is this side of humanity that is the most "real" to him. Even the most basic act in a normal day can have numerous hidden meanings that need only to be explored by a poetic mind. For example, in the poem "Mowing," the simple act of mowing hay with a scythe is transformed into a discussion of the value of hard work and the traditions of the New England countryside. As Frost argues in the poem, by focusing on "reality," the real actions of real people, a poet can sift through the unnecessary elements of fantasy and discover "Truth." Moreover, Frost believes that the emphasis on everyday life allows him to communicate with his readers more clearly; they can empathize with the struggles and emotions that are expressed in his poems and come to a greater understanding of "Truth" themselves.

#REFERENCES:

Ø https://www.123helpme.com/view.asp?id=123364

Ø https://www.bartleby.com/essay/The-Theme-of-Life-and-Death-in-P3CZ4CXYTJ

Ø http://www.enotes.com/topics/robert-frost/critical-essays/analysis-1

Ø https://www.gradesaver.com/the-poetry-of-robert-frost/study-guide/themes

Ø https://www.sparknotes.com/poetry/frost/themes/

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF: ‘THE MODERN LITERATURE'.

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GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF: ‘THE MODERN LITERATURE'.

Ø Prepared by     : KAVITABA P. GOHIL

Ø Roll No: 19

Ø Batch: 2017-19

Ø Email: kavitabaprahaladsinhjigohil@gmail.com

Ø Enrollment No: 2069108420180018

Ø M.A (English)   :  SEM -3

Ø Paper – 9        : THE MODERN LITERATURE

Ø Submitted to   :  Smt .S. B Gardi, Department of English,                                                                                               MK Bhavnagar University.

Ø Words count: -

#ABSTRACT:

Each and every age in the history of English literature has some different traits that distinguish it from all other, Modernist or Twentieth century also had some marked features that differentiate it from previous ages. The transition from the Victorian age to Modern age was faster forward and backward. Modernism best described as the literary and artistic period from the first half of the twentieth century.

In the first half of the fifty years of the 20th-century human race moved faster forward and backward than during perhaps fifty generations of in the past. The human race moved faster in industrialization and inventions of technology, with the help of that society lead to progress, and because of material growth and scientific development, there was spiritual regress, human race degraded in the matter of religion and spirituality. (Setting)

This assignment mainly focuses on General characteristics of ‘The Modern age’ or we can say salient features of the age.

# INTRODUCTION:

The modern age in literature was grounded in achievements that are amazing in their potential for both emancipation and destruction: atomic energy, space exploration, genetic, biomedical engineering, and telecommunications. Technological advances in these areas could either save millions of human beings and the planet or destroy them several times over. They can free people from the ‘bondage’ of disease, poverty, and oppression or mire them in worse conditions. The literature of the 20th century has consistently addressed these extreme situations of freedom and oppression, fear and freedom from fear, ruins, and achievements.

The increasing role of, and dependence on, electrical and mechanical devices, from everyday life and housework to gigantic industries, marks the 20th century. The technology of the world and life has also resulted in massive environmental problems, some of which have attracted socio-political and legal attention and activism across the world. Right from the first decades of the 20th century, North American and European continents underwent rapid urbanization, as rural populations fled to cities for jobs. Science became the most significant discipline (perhaps at the cost of the humanities and social sciences). The race to colonize space began. Medical science crossed unbelievable distances and provided treatments for assorted illnesses. It cracked open the secret of life – the discovery of DNA stands on par with the discoveries of the radio waves, the theory of relativity, the steam engine and other such achievements of the industrialized age.( Backgrounds)

#CHARACTERISTICS:

1 – Globalization& Science-technology

An important consequence of the discoveries found in colonization carried out especially by Spain and Portugal first and later also by Great Britain and The Netherlands. In the same way, this era also recognized as the beginning of globalization, one of the main characteristics of the Modern Age.

In turn, I also create a new trade need between continents. For example, spices became indispensable in European diets and cinnamon or pepper became a necessity. The Age of Discovery, also known as the Age of Exploration has mentioned as one of the possible starting points of the Modern Age.

These voyages and discoveries of new countries, territories, and continents of which there was no knowledge or certainty of their existence, represented an important change in diverse areas as the commerce, the culture, the religion, etc. This gastronomic exchange forced to develop new Conservation techniques Due to long journeys across the world.

The 20th century was marked by bold scientific developments. Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution undermined an unquestioned faith in God that was, until that point, nearly universal while the rise of psychoanalysis, a monument led by Sigmund Freud, introduced the idea of unconscious mind. Such innovation in ways of thinking had great influence on the styles and concerns of contemporary artist and writer like those of Bloomsbury Group. Bloomsbury name derived from a district of London in which its members lived, this group of writers, artists and philosophers emphasized on the nonconformity, aesthetic pleasure and intellectual freedom.

2- 

In Modernist literature, the individual is more interesting than society. Specifically, modernist writers were fascinated with how the individual adapted to the changing world. In some cases, the individual triumphed over obstacles. For the most part, Modernist literature featured characters who just kept their heads above water. Writers presented the world or society as a challenge to the integrity of their characters. Ernest Hemingway especially remembered for vivid characters he accepted their circumstances at face value and persevered.

3- Stream of consciousness:

A stream of consciousness was a phrase used by William James in his Principles of Psychology (1890) to describe the unbroken flow of perceptions, thoughts, and feelings in the waking mind. Then it adopted to describe a narrative method in modern fiction.

Willy James' had a little theory called Radical Empiricism (which kind of sounds like a metal band), which sheds doubt on the existence of a unified self. In normal-people speak, this means that the "I" you were five years ago or even five minutes ago is not the same "I" you are now. We are all a series of selves and that the self can’t be disentangled from the world. In other words, we are what we see. Freud's theories about the unconscious definitely changed the way people thought about the mind. However, William James' theories about the nature of consciousness that had a much greater influence on the way Modernist literature were written than most people realize.

He shared with his brother, the novelist Henry James (how much do you want to go to the James family Thanksgiving?), and a preoccupation with consciousness. He described the flow of thought, in a phrase that would launch a thousand works of fiction, as "a stream." Who employed a stream of consciousness writing techniques? ‘Um, everyone who was anyone in Modernism.’ Dorothy Richardson, Virginia Woolf, and James Joyce… and that is just the tip of the stream of consciousness iceberg.

Not surprisingly, Henry James was the earliest novelist whose work reflects his bro William James' theories. The books Henry James published after the appearance of his brother's Principles of Psychology (1890) seem to turn upon the issues related to consciousness. In novels like What Maisie Knew (1897) and The Golden Bowl (1904), readers have to ask themselves how the narrators' perspectives account for what they see.

Long passages of introspection, in which the narrator records in detail what passes through a character's awareness, found in novelists from Samuel Richardson, through William James’ brother Henry James, to many novelists of the present era. A stream of consciousness is the name applied specifically to a mode of narration that undertakes to reproduce, without a narrator's intervention, the full spectrum and continuous flow of a character's mental process, in which sense perceptions mingle with conscious and half-conscious thoughts, memories, expectations, feelings, and random associations.

4-Existentialism & Absurdity:

 The carnage of two World Wars profoundly affected writers of the period. Several great English poets died or they wounded in WWI. For many writers, the world was becoming a more absurd place every day. Modernist authors depicted this absurdity in their works.

Existentialism became popular in the year following World War 2, and strongly influenced many disciplines besides philosophy including theology, drama, art, literature, and Psychology. Existentialist recognizes that human knowledge is limited and fallible. Waiting for Godot falls under the category of Theatre of Absurd, a term coined by drama critic Martin Esslin. Vladimir and Estragon caught in hopeless situation forced to do repetitive or meaningless actions, dialogues are full of clichés, wordplay, and nonsense, the plot that is cyclical or absurdly expansive.

Who are we?

Why are we here?

We are waiting for whom?

Existentialist themes displayed in the Beckett's Waiting for Godot, in which two men divert themselves while they wait expectantly for someone named Godot who never arrives. They claim Godot to be an acquaintance, but in fact, hardly know him if they saw him.

Samuel Beckett, once asked who or what Godot is? replied, ' if I knew, I would have said so in the play'.

To occupy themselves, the men eat, sleep, talk, argue, sing, play games, exercise, swap hats and contemplate suicide - anything “to hold the terrible silence at bay. The play "exploits several Archetypal forms and situations, all of which lend themselves to both comedy and pathos".

The play also illustrates an attitude toward human experience on earth: the poignancy, oppression, camaraderie, hope, corruption, & bewilderment of human experience that can be reconciled only in the mind & art of the Absurdist. The play examines questions such as death, the meaning of human existence and the place of God in human existence.

The characters of the play are strange caricatures who have difficulty in communicating the simplest concept to one another as they bide their time awaiting their arrival of Godot. Whereas traditional theatre attempts to create a photographic representation of life as we see it, The Theatre of Absurd aims to create a ritual like mythological, Archetypal, allegorical vision closely related to the world of dreams.

5-Renaissance humanism:

Humanism Was a European intellectual, philosophical and cultural movement initiated in Italy and then expanded throughout Western Europe between the fourteenth, fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. In this, one was looked for to return to the models of the Classical Antiquity and the Greco-Roman humanism.

This movement arose in response to the doctrine of utilitarianism. Humanists sought to create citizens who were able to express themselves, orally and in writing, with eloquence and clarity, but still committing themselves to the civic life of their communities and persuading others to perform virtuous and prudent actions.

In order to fulfill this ideal, he used the study of "Studia humanitatis", which we know today as the humanities, among them: grammar, rhetoric, history, poetry and moral philosophy.

The"Studia humanitatis" excluded logic from their study and made poetry a sequel to grammar and rhetoric; the most important area of study. This emphasis on the study of poetry and the quality of oral and written expression, above logic and practice, represent an illustration of the ideals of change and progress of the Modern Age and the yearning for the Renaissance.

6- Experimentation:

Modernist writers broke free of old forms and techniques. Poets abandoned traditional rhyme schemes and wrote in free verse. Novelists defied all expectations. Writers mixed images from the past with modern languages and themes, creating a collage of styles. The inner workings of consciousness were a common subject for modernists. This preoccupation led to a form of narration called stream of consciousness, where the point of view of the novel meanders in a pattern resembling human thought. Authors James Joyce and Virginia Woolf, along with poets T.S. Eliot and Ezra Pound are well known for their experimental Modernist works.

7- Longingness:

          Longingness is at the root of modern literature. Modem poets express longingness of all kind in their poetry. Rupert Brooke’s Old vicarage is a cry of homesickness. John Masefield’s Seekers is the best example of the longing of man for God and the eternal city of light. The longingness is also evident in The Hollow men and The Waste Land of T. S. Eliot.

 

#CONCLUSION:

The modern literature is different from other literature, it has come out of cruelty and bloodsheds, and it questions the existence of Humans and God too. It presents human life as it is. Modern literature is the true criticism of life.

#REFERENCES:

·      "A Handbook to Literature"; William Harmon and Hugh Holman; 2003

·      Nayar, Pramod K. "Backgrounds." A Short History of English Literature. Foundation, 2009. 297-300. Print.

·      Ward, A. C. "THE SETTING." Twentieth Century English Literature. 1. London: The English Language book society and Mathuen, 1965. 1-24.

·      Wikipedia contributors. "Modern history." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, 3 Nov. 2018. Web. 4 Nov. 2018.

·      Wikipedia contributors. "Modern history." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, 3 Nov. 2018. Web. 4 Nov. 2018.

Psychological reading of characters in Waiting for godot. ppr-9

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Psychological reading of characters in Waiting for Godot from KAVITABA P. GOHIL

Themes in Poe's short stories. PPR-10

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Themes of Poe's short stories from KAVITABA P. GOHIL

Commonwealth literature does not exist. ppr-11

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Ppt 11 post colonial studies - commonwealth literature doe not exist. from KAVITABA P. GOHIL

The Oral approach and Situational language teaching ppr-12

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Oral approach and situational language teaching - ELT from KAVITABA P. GOHIL